ÿþ<HTML><HEAD><TITLE>MISLS</TITLE> <style type="text/css"> .BODY { background-color: #EAF1F7; background-image: url('images/gtbh.jpg'); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-attachment: fixed; background-position: center; color: #0066CC;} .C1{text-align: justify;color: #0066CC;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} .BIB{text-align: center;color: #000099;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} .CONT{text-align: right;color: #FF0000;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} </style><META NAME="keywords" CONTENT="MISLS"> <META http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"></HEAD> <BODY class="BODY" oncontextmenu="return false" ondragstart="return false" onselectstart="return false"> <FONT ALIGN="JUSTIFY" FACE="Tahoma"> <p class="C1">&#65279MISLS, <i>Misl</i> is a term which originated in the eighteenth-century history of the Sikhs to describe a unit or brigade of Sikh warriors and the territory acquired by it in the course of its campaign of conquest following the weakening of the Mu<u>gh</u>al authority in the country. Scholars trying to trace the etymology of the term have usually based their interpretation on the Arabic/Persian word <i>misl</i>. According to Steingass, <i>Persian-English Dictionary</i>, the word means "similitude, alike or equal", and "a file" or collection of papers bearing on a particular topic. David Ochterlony defined <i>misl</i> as "a tribe or race;" Wilson as "a voluntary association of the Sikhs;" B&#363&#7789e Sh&#257h as "territory conquered by a brave Sard&#257r with the help of his comrades," Sayyid Im&#257m ud-Din Husain&#299 as a "<i>&#7693erah</i> or encampment." Ratan Si&#7749gh Bha&#7749g&#363 uses the term at several places in the sense of a <i>th&#257n&#257</i> or military/police post; M'Gregor uses it in the sense of "a friendly nation;" Lawrence in that of "a brotherhood;" Syad Muhammad Lat&#299f in that of "a confederacy of clans under their respective chiefs leagued together;" and so on.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Misl</i> in the meaning of a file or record (maintained according to some, at Ak&#257l Ta<u>kh</u>t, under the commander of the entire Sikh army, the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257) pertaining to a Sard&#257r's fighting force and territorial acquisitions has been mentioned by Sita R&#257m Kohli. J.D. Cunningham had taken note of this connotation of the word, too. He also traces the etymology of the word to <i>maslahat</i> which, according to Steingass' dictionary, means "a front-garrison, a border fortification; armed (men), warlike (people), guards, guardians."</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The term <i>misl</i> was first used by Sain&#257pati, a Punjabi poet contemporary with Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh. In his <i>Sr&#299 Guru Sobha</i>, Sain&#257pati uses the word <i>misl</i> primarily in the sense of a group or troop or sub-unit of armed warriors or soldiers. The use of the term <i>misl</i> occurs in the account of the battle of Bha&#7749g&#257&#7751&#299 between Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh and the hill r&#257j&#257s in AD 1688. Sain&#257pati writes that the horsemen of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh assembled under their banners at the beat of war-drum. In the battlefield <i>morch&#257s</i> were set up at various places which were allotted to <i>misls</i> (groups). Sain&#257pati again uses the word <i>misl</i> in reference to the last days of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh at N&#257nde&#7693. He says that the people came there in <i>misls</i> (groups).</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The <i>misl</i> system is sometimes said to have originated with Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh, who had conferred the sovereignty of the land on the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257. The Sikhs literally claimed it as a boon granted them by the Gur&#363; and in this manner it is claimed to have received divine sanction. But in order to understand the genesis and evolution of the <i>misl</i> system in a historical perspective, we must go back to the beginning of the eighteenth century. From N&#257nde&#7693 in the Deccan, Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh had deputed, Band&#257 Si&#7749gh Bah&#257dur to the Punjab with a group of five prominent Sikhs and a bodyguard of 25 Sikh soldiers. As he arrived in the Punjab, men of grit and daring began to rally round his banner. Within two months, 4,000-5,000 horsemen and 7,000-8,000 foot had volunteered to join him. In the course of one year 30,000-40,000 troops were under him. In May 1710 the entire province of Sirhind; between the Sutlej and the Yamun&#257 and, between the &#346iv&#257lik hills and P&#257n&#299pat, worth 52,00,000 rupees annually fell into the hands of the Sikhs. But the Sikh power did not last long. The leader, Band&#257 Si&#7749gh Bah&#257dur, was captured in December 1715 and executed six months later in June 1716. With the execution of Band&#257 Si&#7749gh, the Sikhs were deprived of a unified command. Hunted out of their homes, the Sikhs scattered in small <i>jath&#257s</i> or groups to find refuge in distant hills, forests and deserts, but they were far from vanquished. Armed with whatever weapons they could lay their hands upon and living off the land, these highly mobile guerrilla bands or <i>jath&#257s</i> remained active during the worst of times. It was not unusual for the <i>jath&#257s</i> to join together when the situation so demanded. Ratan Si&#7749gh Bha&#7749g&#363, <i>Pr&#257ch&#299n Panth Prak&#257sh</i>, records an early instance of the warrior bands of the B&#257r&#299 Do&#257b (land between the Rivers Be&#257s and R&#257v&#299) being organized into four <i>tummans</i> or squadrons of 200 each, with a specified area of operation and provision for mutual assistance in time of need. Moreover, it was customary for most <i>jath&#257s</i> to congregate at Amritsar to celebrate Bais&#257kh&#299 and D&#299v&#257l&#299. D&#299w&#257n Darb&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh (d. 1734), an elderly Sikh, acted on such occasions as the common chief. In 1733, <u>Kh</u>&#257n Bah&#257dur Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, the Mu<u>gh</u>al governor of Lahore, having failed to suppress the Sikhs by force, planned to come to terms with them and offered them a <i>j&#257g&#299r</i> or fief worth one lakh rupees a year and the title of "Nawab" to their leader. Additionally, unhindered access to and residence at Amritsar was promised them. The Sikhs accepted the offer and chose Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh from among themselves to be invested with the title of Naw&#257b. Sikh soldiers grouped themselves around their leaders most of whom were stationed at Amritsar.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In consideration of administrative convenience, Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh divided the entire body of troops into two camps, called Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Dal (the elder group) and Taru&#7751&#257 Dal ( the younger group), respectively. Taru&#7751&#257 Dal was further divided into five <i>jath&#257s</i>, each with its own flag and drum. The compact with the government ended in 1735 and, under pressure of renewed persecution, the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 was again forced to split into smaller groups. Almost every village in the M&#257jh&#257 or midlands embracing the districts of Lahore and Amritsar produced a <i>sard&#257r</i> who attracted soldiers to join him and form a <i>&#7693erah</i> or <i>jath&#257</i> or <i>misl</i> of his own.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; N&#257dir Sh&#257h's invasion in 1739 gave a severe blow to the crumbling Mu<u>gh</u>al empire, and this gave the Sikhs a chance to consolidate themselves. At their meeting on the occasion of D&#299v&#257l&#299 following the death, on 1 July 1745, of Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, they gathered at Amritsar, passed a <i>gurmat&#257</i> or resolution and reorganized themselves into 25 groups, each consisting of 100 horse. The old division into the Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Dal and Taru&#7751&#257 Dal was maintained, but the new <i>&#7693erahs</i> generally belonged to the latter. The <i>&#7693erahs</i> spread quickly. By March 1748 there were 65 groups operating in different parts of the Punjab. They carried out their operations generally independent of one another, though they still acknowledged the pre-eminent position of Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh. By this time, a new claimant to power had appeared on the scene. Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299 had launched his first invasion of India and occupied Lahore on 12 January 1748. Roving bands of the Sikhs issued forth from their hideouts, harassed the Af<u>gh</u>&#257n forces, and on the return of the Sh&#257h to Afghanistan, swarmed round Amritsar and engaged in skirmishes with the Lahore forces.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On the day of Bais&#257kh&#299, 29 March 1748, the Sikhs gathered at Amritsar to celebrate the festival. A Sarbatt <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 (a general assembly of the Sikhs) was convened which decided to offer organized resistance to Mu<u>gh</u>al oppression, and the entire fighting force of the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 was unified into a single body called the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, under the supreme command of Sard&#257r Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257. The 65 bands were grouped into 11 <i>misls</i> or divisions each under its own <i>sard&#257r</i> or chief having a separate name and banner as follows : (1) &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257, (2) Si&#7749ghpuri&#257 (also called Faizul&#257pur&#299&#257) <i>misl</i> under Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh, (3) Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under <i>Karo&#7771&#257</i> Si&#7749gh, (4) Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299 <i>misl</i> under Dasau&#7749dh&#257 Si&#7749gh, (5) Shah&#299d <i>misl</i> under D&#299p Si&#7749gh, (6) &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh, (7) Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh, (8) Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>misl</i> under Har&#299 Si&#7749gh, (9) Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misl</i> under Jai Si&#7749gh, (10) Naka&#299 <i>misl</i> under H&#299r&#257 Si&#7749gh, and (11) R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257. The first six <i>misls</i> were under Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Dal and the latter five under Taru&#7751&#257 Dal. Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 was chosen to be in joint command of the entire Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, while Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh continued to be acknowledged as the supreme commander. Ph&#363lk&#299&#257&#7749 under B&#257b&#257 &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 was the twelfth <i>misl</i>, but it was not part of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 command.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 was a kind of loose confederacy, without any regular constitution. Every chief maintained his independent character. All <i>amritdh&#257r&#299</i> Sikhs were eligible for membership of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 which was mainly a cavalry force. Anyone who was an active horseman and proficient in the use of arms could join any one of the eleven misls or independencies having the option to change membership whenever desired. The <i>misls</i> were subject to the control of the Sarbatt <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, the bi-annual assembly of the Panth at Amritsar. The frequent use made of the Sarbatt <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 converted it into a central forum of the <i>panth</i>. It had to elect leader of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, and to lay down its political goal and plans of its military strategy. It had also to set out plans for strengthening the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 faith and body politic, besides adjudicating disputes about property and succession. The Ak&#257l Ta<u>kh</u>t was the symbol of the unity of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 which was in a way the Sikh state in making. The Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 with its total estimated strength of 70,000 essentially consisted of cavalry; artillery and infantry elements were almost non-existent.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 established its authority over most of the Punjab region in a short time. As early as 1749, the Mu<u>gh</u>al governor of the Punjab solicited its help in the suppression of a rebellion in Mult&#257n. In early 1758, the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, in collaboration with the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257s, occupied Sirhind and Lahore. Within three months of the Va&#7693&#7693&#257 Ghall&#363gh&#257r&#257, the Great Massacre of 5 February 1762, the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 rose to defeat Ahmad Sh&#257h's governor at Sirhind in April-May 1762 and the Sh&#257h himself at Amritsar in October the same year. Sirhind and its adjoining territories were occupied permanently in January 1764. The <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 thenceforward not only had the Punjab in their possession, but also carried their victories right up to Delhi and beyond the Yamun&#257 into the heart of the Gangetic plain.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; With the conquest of Sirhind in January 1764 had begun the final phase of the emergence of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 into a confederacy of sovereign political principalities or <i>misls</i> in the Punjab. The <i>misls</i> now occupied well-defined territories over which their <i>sard&#257rs</i> ruled independently while maintaining their former links as units of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257. The <i>misls</i> of the Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Dal spread themselves out broadly as follows : &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 in the neighbourhood of Kap&#363rthal&#257; in the Jalandhar Do&#257b, with some villages in the M&#257jh&#257 such as Sarh&#257l&#299, Ja&#7751&#7693i&#257l&#257, Bu&#7751&#7693&#257l&#257, Vairov&#257l and Fateh&#257b&#257d; Si&#7749ghpur&#299&#257 in parts of Jalandhar Do&#257b and Chhat-Ban&#363&#7771 Bharatga&#7771h areas south of the Sutlej; Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 in a long strip south of the Sutlej extending from Samr&#257l&#257 in the west to Jag&#257dhar&#299 in the east; Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299 in area S&#257hnev&#257l, Dor&#257h&#257, M&#257chh&#299v&#257&#7771&#257 - Amloh with pockets around Z&#299r&#257 and Amb&#257l&#257; Shah&#299d in area Shahz&#257dpur-Kesar&#299 in present-day Amb&#257l&#257 district, and territory around Ra&#7751&#299&#257 and Talva&#7751&#7693&#299 S&#257bo; and &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 in <i>parganahs</i> of Dharamkot and Tih&#257&#7771&#257 to the south of the River Sutlej and Loh&#299&#257&#7749 and Sh&#257hko&#7789 to the north of it. Of these &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 survived as the princely house of Kap&#363rthal&#257 and a branch of Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 as Kals&#299&#257. Others divided into several small chieftainships were either taken over by Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh and the British East India Company or absorbed into the Ph&#363lk&#299&#257n states of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257, N&#257bh&#257 and J&#299nd.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; From among the Taru&#7751&#257 Dal <i>misls</i> only one <i>sard&#257r</i> of the Bha&#7749g&#299 family, R&#257i Si&#7749gh, had participated in the partition of Sirhind territory. He occupied 204 villages around B&#363&#7771&#299&#257 and Jag&#257dhar&#299. The remaining <i>sard&#257rs</i> of the Taru&#7751&#257 Dal had their eyes fixed on the northern Do&#257bs of the Punjab. The Bha&#7749g&#299s controlled a major part of the city of Lahore and extended their hegemony over Mult&#257n and subsequently occupied Jha&#7749g, <u>Kh</u>ush&#257b and Chinio&#7789 in the west and Si&#257lko&#7789 and Gujr&#257t in the east. Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misl</i> ruled over the area comprising a major part of the present Gurd&#257spur district and Muker&#299&#257&#7749 <i>tahs&#299l</i> of Hoshi&#257rpur district, while the Naka&#299s held sway over the country south of Lahore, between the R&#257v&#299 and Sutlej. The territory of the R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257s lay on both sides of the River Be&#257s and included villages around Mi&#257n&#299 and U&#7771mu&#7771 Ta&#7751&#7693&#257 in Jalandhar Do&#257b. They also held sway over the hill states of Chamb&#257, N&#363rpur, Jasv&#257n and Har&#299pur. In 1776, they were defeated by the combined forces of Kanhaiy&#257s and R&#257j&#257 Sa&#7749s&#257r Chand Ka&#7789och of K&#257&#7749g&#7771&#257 and their territory annexed by the victors. The Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s under Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh established themselves around Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 which they made their headquarters and extended their territory up to Roht&#257s beyond the River Jehlum. Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh's grandson, Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh, became the ruler of the entire Punjab from the Sutlej to the <u>Kh</u>aibar, subduing the intervening <i>misls</i>.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The <i>misl</i> as a means of organizing Sikh life during that transitional period was crucial. The <i>misl</i> was important from about 1760 to the establishment of the Sikh kingdom under Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Basically the internal affairs of each <i>misl</i> were administered by the <i>misl</i> itself.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Cunningham's definition of the <i>misl</i> organization as "a theocratic confederate feudalism" is only partially correct. Devotion to Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh's ideals of faith and community was a paramount requirement, but no priestly interference or domination was allowed. Rather, the whole community was itself standing in covenant with God through the Gur&#363s and the scriptures. The Ak&#257l&#299s were in charge of the Golden Temple at Amritsar, but they did not infringe the sovereignty of the <i>misls</i>. By displaying a rare spirit or magnanimity towards the erstwhile persecutors of their faith, by supporting the cause of the poor, the helpless and the innocent and by preserving social and economic equality in their ranks the Sikh <i>misls</i> made Sikh religion popular with the young and daring men in the villages.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The <i>misl</i> chief exercised full authority within his domain. His rule was benign, based on the good will of all classes of people. Each village, a sort of a small republic, administered its affairs through a <i>pañch&#257yat</i> which was generally a council of five elders representing the collective will of the people. The village headman exercised general superintendence over all the affairs of the village on behalf of the <i>pañch&#257yat</i>, as well as on behalf of the government. The village <i>pa&#7789v&#257r&#299</i> was responsible for maintaining record of the lands and registered every document connected with it. The village watchman was the most vigilant character. He kept an eye on suspicious characters and provided aid to the police. He was the repository of village information and gossip.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Above the village's <i>pañch&#257yat</i> there was the court of the, <i>misl</i> chief. He administered justice according to local customs and traditions derived mainly from the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, Hindus or the Muslims. Evidence, common sense and secret personal investigation in disguise weighed heavily in the investigation of crime. Trackers were freely employed in cases of theft and murder. The army took the main responsibility for checking crime.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Both parties had to pay for justice, the convict with <i>cha&#7789&#7789&#299</i> or <i>jurm&#257n&#257</i> or fine, and the guiltless had to shell out <i>shukr&#257n&#257</i> (thanksgiving). Fines were imposed not according to the gravity of the crime, but in accordance with the financial position of the culprit. The <i>pañchay&#257ts</i> tried to maintain equity and justice in the village. Their decisions, were not backed by any physical force. Social pressure was the strongest sanction; defiance by any member of the community could lead to his being excommunicated.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The <i>misl</i> soldier owned his own horse and musket; his loyalty lay with one or the other powerful chief who could lead him to conquest and glory. As a rule, the Sikh soldier was a horseman. He hated to serve as infantryman, and to be away from the field on any excuse. He was equipped with both offensive and defensive weapons; priming horns, ammunition pouches, two blankets, a grain bag and halters. On the march the blankets were put beneath the saddle. Both artillery and infantry were practically unknown to the <i>misls</i>. Their armies were unencumbered by heavy ordnance, and possessed amazing speed and manoeuvrability. With their scanty accoutrement, they could cover from 100 to 200 kilometres daily for days on end and could encamp or decamp in a few minutes. The <i>misl</i> soldier was adept in predatory warfare which could earn him a share in the booty, for he received no salary. As the <i>misls</i> settled down to their permanent possessions, some minor leaders also acquired territory as part of their share of conquests. Holders of such possessions were called <i>misld&#257rs</i>.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Generally, Sikhs offered themselves for recruitment and they were enlisted irrespective of their caste or creed. Enlistment was voluntary. Prospective recruits could opt for a <i>misl</i> of their choice and had the freedom to transfer their allegiance to any other. The soldier received no organized training in drill, discipline or military tactics; this deficiency was made up by his religious fervour and single-minded devotion to the cause of the confederacy. The <i>misl</i> troops were organized into smaller groups based generally on kinship or territorial affinity. Their methods of war were unconventional. They seldom fought pitched battles, but adopted hit-and-run tactics. George Thomas, who fought them frequently, observes : "The Seiks are armed with a spear, matchlock and scymetar... mounting their horses, ride forth towards the enemy with whom they engage in a continued skirmish advancing and retreating until man and horse become equally fatigued."</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The overall military strength of the Sikh <i>misls</i> is variously estimated. According to one estimate, the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 could muster about 70,000 horse as under : the Bha&#7749g&#299s 10,000 horse, the &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 3,000, the R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257s 3,000, the Kanhaiy&#257s 3,000, the &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257s 7,500, the Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299&#257s 12,000, the Shah&#299ds 2,000, the Naka&#299s 2,000, the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s 2,500, the Karo&#7771si&#7749ghi&#257 12000, the Si&#7749ghpur&#299&#257 8,000, and the Ph&#363lk&#299&#257s 5,000. George Forster who visited the Punjab in 1783, reckoned the military strength of the <i>misls</i> at over 2,00,000 horse. James Browne in 1783 estimated the strength of the cis-Sutlej Sikh <i>misls</i> at 18,225 horse and 6,075 foot &#8212 total 24,300 and total strength of the Sikh armies at 2,48,000 which estimate may be exaggerated.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The main source of the income of the <i>misls</i> in the initial stages was plunder, augmented later by <i>r&#257kh&#299</i> imposts. R&#257kh&#299, lit. protection, was, like the <i>chauth</i> of the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257s, a levy of a portion, usually one fifth of the revenue assessment of a territory, as a fee for the guarantee of peace and protection. <i>R&#257kh&#299</i> continued to be collected from territories in the Gangetic Do&#257b and the country between Delhi and P&#257n&#299pat right up to 1803 when the British East India Company established its power in the region. But as the <i>sard&#257rs</i> settled down as sovereign rulers in their domains, land revenue became the major source. As a rule, the Sikh <i>sard&#257rs</i> followed the <i>bat&#257&#299</i> system. One-fifth of the gross produce was deducted before the division for expenses of cultivation. Out of the remaining four-fifths, the <i>sard&#257r's</i> share varied from one-half to one-quarter. The general proportion was 55% cultivator's share, 7.5% proprietor's share and 37.5% government share. The revenue was commonly realized in Kind, except for cattle fodder, vegetables, and fruit which were chargeable in cash or kind per <i>bigh&#257</i>. Producers of a few crops such as cotton, sugarcane, poppy and indigo were required to pay revenue in cash. The <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 or crown lands remained under the direct control of the <i>misl</i> chiefs. According to James Browne, a contemporary East India Company employee, the <i>misl</i> chiefs collected a very moderate rent, and that mostly in kind. Their soldiery never molested the husbandman; the chief never levied the whole of his share; and in the country, perhaps, never was a cultivator treated with more indulgence. The chief also did not interfere with old and hereditary land-tenures. The rules of <i>haq shuf&#257</i> did not permit land to be sold to an outsider. New fields, or residential sites could be broken out of waste land as such land was available in plenty.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Duties on traders and merchants also brought some revenue. The Sikh chiefs gave full protection to traders passing through their territories. George Forster, who travelled to northern India in 1783, observed that extensive and valuable commerce was maintained in their territories which was extended to distant quarters of India, particularly to the provinces of Beng&#257l and Bih&#257r, where many Sikh merchants of opulence at that time resided. Exports to the country west of the Attock consisted of sugar, rice, indigo and white cloth, the imports being swords, horses, fruit, lead and spices. Imports from Kashm&#299r consisted of shawls, saffron and fruit against the export of wheat, rice, salt and spices. With the inhabitants of the hills were exchanged cloth, matchlocks and horses for iron and other commodities. From the Deccan, the principal imports were sulphur, indigo, salt, lead, iron and spices, exports being horses, camels, sugar, rice, white cloth, matchlocks, swords, bows and arrows.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Following are the <i>misls</i> which comprised the Sikh Punjab at the close of the eighteenth century, prior to the rise of Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh :</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#256HL&#362V&#256L&#298&#256 MISL, one of the twelve <i>misls</i> or Sikh chiefships which had gained power in the Punjab during the latter half of the eighteenth century, derived its name from the village of &#256hl&#363, in Lahore district, founded by a Kal&#257l or distiller of wine, named Sad&#257o. One of his descendants, Badar Si&#7749gh, married the sister of B&#257gh Si&#7749gh Hallov&#257l&#299&#257, who had received the rites of the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 at the hands of Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh and who had come to acquire considerable means and influence. To Badar Si&#7749gh was born a son named Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh, who founded the <i>misl</i> of the &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257s, a remnant of which lasted until recent years in the form of the princely state of Kap&#363rthal&#257. Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh who became famous in history as Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 was a prominent leader of the Sikhs during the eventful years of the eighteenth century. A right-hand man of Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh, he took a leading part in the Sikh struggle against the Mu<u>gh</u>al governors of the Punjab, Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, Y&#257h&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n and M&#299r Mann&#363. When on the Bais&#257kh&#299 day of 1748, a general assembly of the Sikhs convened at Amritsar resolved to consolidate the sixty-five roving Sikh <i>jath&#257s</i>, i.e. bands, into one command called Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh was chosen to take charge of it. Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh started seizing villages and towns in the Punjab, thrown into confusion with the passing away of M&#299r Mann&#363 in November 1753, and established the system of <i>r&#257kh&#299</i> or protection. The Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 under him routed in April 1754 an Af<u>gh</u>&#257n force from Lahore which had laid siege to Amritsar. In March 1758, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh led Sikhs in their march upon Sirhind and occupied it jointly with the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257s who were their allies in the campaign. A month later Sikhs under him entered Lahore. Although Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299 re-established his influence in the winter of 1759, defeated the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257s at P&#257n&#299pat in 1761 and inflicted a severe loss upon the Sikhs in February 1762, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh led the Sikhs to conquer Sirhind in 1764. In 1777, he defeated R&#257i Ibr&#257h&#299m, the Bha&#7789&#7789&#299 chief, and took from him the present town of Kap&#363rthal&#257, converting it into the capital of the &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257s. As for his possessions, he held Ko&#7789 '&#298s&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, Jagr&#257o&#7749, &#298s&#7771&#363, and Fatehga&#7771h, to the south of River Sutlej, and Bha&#7771og in Amb&#257l&#257 district; in the Jalandhar Do&#257b, Kap&#363rthal&#257, Sult&#257npur Lodh&#299 and the surrounding villages. The <i>zam&#299nd&#257rs</i> of Phagw&#257&#7771&#257, U&#7771mu&#7771 &#7788a&#7751&#7693&#257 and Y&#257hiy&#257pur paid him tribute. In the B&#257r&#299 Do&#257b, he had Ja&#7751&#7693i&#257l&#257, Sa&#7789hi&#257l&#257, Bu&#7751&#7693&#257l&#257, Jal&#257l&#257b&#257d, Vairov&#257l, Sarh&#257l&#299, Fateh&#257b&#257d, Jal&#257lpur, Goindv&#257l, Tarn T&#257ran and Kha&#7693&#363r; in the Rachn&#257 Do&#257b, Zafarv&#257l.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh died in 1783. He had no son and was succeeded by his second cousin, Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh, who died in 1801. Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh's son, Fateh Si&#7749gh (d. 1837), was an influential ally of Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh who exchanged turbans with him reiterating friendliness between the two families. In 1846, after the first Anglo-Sikh war, Kap&#363rthal&#257 came under British protection. The descendants of Fateh Si&#7749gh ruled the Kap&#363rthal&#257 state for more than a century until it merged with the Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) in 1948 after the British withdrew from India.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;BHA&#7748G&#298 MISL, one of the twelve <i>misls</i> or eighteenth-century Sikh principalities acquired its name from the addiction of its members to a drug called <i>bha&#7749g</i> or hemp. The founder of the <i>jath&#257</i>, i.e. band of warriors, that later acquired the dimensions of a <i>misl</i> was Chhajj&#257 Si&#7749gh of Pañjva&#7771 village, near Amritsar who had converted to Sikhism. He was succeeded by Bh&#363m&#257 Si&#7749gh, a &#7692hillo&#7749 Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of Hu&#7749g, near Badhn&#299 in present-day Mog&#257 district, who won a name for himself in skirmishes with N&#257dir Sh&#257h's troops in 1739. On Bh&#363m&#257 Si&#7749gh's death in 1746, his nephew and adopted son, Har&#299 Si&#7749gh, assumed the leadership of the <i>misl</i>. At the formation of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 in 1748, Har&#299 Si&#7749gh was acknowledged head of the Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>misl</i> as well as leader of the Taru&#7751&#257 Dal. He vastly increased the power and influence of the Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>misl</i> which began to be ranked as the strongest among its peers. He created an army of 20,000 dashing youths, captured Pañjva&#7771 in the Tarn T&#257ran <i>parganah</i> and established his headquarters first at Sohal and then at Gilv&#257l&#299, both in Amritsar district. Har&#299 Si&#7749gh kept up guerrilla warfare against the invading hosts of Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299. In 1763, he along with the <i>Kanhaiy&#257s</i> and R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257s, sacked the Af<u>gh</u>&#257n stronghold of Kas&#363r. In 1764, he ravaged Bah&#257walpur and Mult&#257n. Crossing the River Indus, he realized tribe from the Bal&#363ch&#299 chiefs in the districts of Muzaffarga&#7771h, &#7693er&#257 <u>Gh</u>&#257z&#299 <u>Kh</u>&#257n and &#7693er&#257 Ism&#257'&#299l <u>Kh</u>&#257n. On his way back home, he reduced Jha&#7749g, Chinio&#7789 and Si&#257lko&#7789. Har&#299 Si&#7749gh died in 1765, fighting against B&#257b&#257 &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Har&#299 Si&#7749gh was succeeded by Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh, his eldest son, under whom the Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>misl</i> reached the zenith of its power. In 1764, Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh had invaded Mult&#257n and Bah&#257walpur, but failed to drive out the Durr&#257n&#299 satrap Shuj&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n Saddoza&#299. Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh marched on Mult&#257n again in 1772 forcing the Naw&#257b to flee. Mult&#257n was declared <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 territory and the city was parcelled out between Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh and his commander Lahi&#7751&#257 Si&#7749gh. Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh next subdued Jha&#7749g, K&#257l&#257 B&#257<u>gh</u> and Manker&#257. He built a brick fort at Amritsar which he named Qil&#257 Bha&#7749g&#299&#257&#7749 and laid out fine bazars in the city. He then proceeded to Ras&#363lnagar, where he recovered from the Muhammadan Cha&#7789&#7789h&#257 rulers the famous gun Zamzam&#257 which came to be known as Bha&#7749g&#299&#257&#7749 d&#299 Top. But Jha&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh was soon involved in the internal feuds of the warring <i>misls</i>. He was killed in 1774 in a battle with the Kanhaiy&#257s and the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s at Jamm&#363 whither he had marched to settle a standing succession issue. He was succeeded by his brother Ga&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh who, dying of illness at the time of a battle with the Kanhaiy&#257s at D&#299n&#257nagar, was in turn succeeded by his minor son, Des&#257 Si&#7749gh, under whose weak leadership began the decline of the dynasty. Several Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>sard&#257rs</i> set themselves up as independent chiefs within their territories. Des&#257 Si&#7749gh was killed in action against Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 in 1782. A leading Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>sard&#257r</i> now was Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh Ro&#7771&#257&#7749v&#257l&#257 who had fought hand in hand with Har&#299 Si&#7749gh Bha&#7749g&#299 in several of his battles. After his death, his adopted son, Lahi&#7751&#257 Si&#7749gh, and Gujjar Si&#7749gh, son of his daughter, divided his estates. In 1765, they had joined hands with Sobh&#257 Si&#7749gh Kanhaiy&#257 and occupied Lahore. The city was partitioned among the three <i>sard&#257rs</i> who, though temporarily driven out in 1767 by Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299, had continued in authority. In January 1797 Ahmad Sh&#257h's grandson, Sh&#257h Zam&#257n, led out an expedition and seized the city. But soon after the departure of the Durr&#257n&#299 Sh&#257h for K&#257bul, Lahi&#7751&#257 Si&#7749gh and Sobh&#257 Si&#7749gh (Gujjar Si&#7749gh had died in 1791), returned and re-established their rule. The same year, 1797, Lahi&#7751&#257 Si&#7749gh died and was succeeded by his son Chet Si&#7749gh and about the same time, Sobh&#257 Si&#7749gh died and was succeeded by his son Mohar Si&#7749gh. But the new rulers failed to establish their authority. People groaned under oppressive taxes and extortions and local Muhammadan Chaudhar&#299s and mercantile Khatr&#299s made a common cause and invited Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh and Sad&#257 Kaur to come and occupy the city. On 7 July 1799, Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh arrived with 5,000 troops at the Sh&#257l&#257m&#257r Gardens. The Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>sard&#257rs</i> left the town hastily and Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh became master of the capital of the Punjab, laying the foundation of Sikh monarchy.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Reverting to the main branch of the Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>misl</i>, Des&#257 Si&#7749gh, son of Ga&#7751&#7693&#257 Si&#7749gh, was succeeded by his minor son Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh, who administered the <i>misl</i> through his cousin Karam Si&#7749gh. Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh enlarged the city of Amritsar where he resided, and, on attaining years of discretion, overran the whole Pa&#7789h&#257n colony of Kas&#363r, which he subdued, the Pa&#7789h&#257n chiefs of Kas&#363r, Niz&#257m ud-Din and Qutb ud-D&#299n <u>Kh</u>&#257n, brothers, entering the service of the conqueror. In 1794, however, the brothers, with the aid of their Af<u>gh</u>&#257n countrymen, recovered Kas&#363r. Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh died in 1800 and was succeeded by his son, Gurdit Si&#7749gh, a 10-year old boy who conducted the affairs of the <i>misl</i> through his mother and guardian, M&#257&#299 Sukkh&#257&#7749. Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh who after having taken possession of Lahore in 1799 was launched on a career of rapid conquest had his eyes on Amritsar where Bha&#7749g&#299s still held their sway. On the excuse of taking from them the famous Zamzam&#257 gun, he marched with a strong force in 1802, Gurdit Si&#7749gh, along with his mother, M&#257&#299 Sukkh&#257&#7749, fleeing without resistance. The last Bha&#7749g&#299 chief to fall was S&#257hib Si&#7749gh of Gujr&#257t who was dismissed with a grant of a few villages. By 1810 all Bha&#7749g&#299 territories &#8212 Lahore, Amritsar, Si&#257lko&#7789, Chinio&#7789, Jha&#7749g, Bher&#257, R&#257walpi&#7751&#7693&#299, Hasan Abd&#257l, Gujr&#257t &#8212 had merged with the kingdom of Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh. The descendants of Bha&#7749g&#299 <i>sard&#257rs</i> are today concentrated mainly in the Amritsar district of the Punjab.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#7692ALLEV&#256L&#298&#256 MISL. The <i>misl</i> derived its name from the village of &#7693allev&#257l, near &#7693er&#257 B&#257b&#257 N&#257nak on the left bank of River R&#257v&#299, 50 km northeast of Amritsar to which its founder, Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh (Gul&#257b&#257 Khatr&#299 before he converted a <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257), belonged. At the time of the formation of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 in 1748, Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh who had already fought bravely against N&#257dir Sh&#257h in 1739 and in the Chho&#7789&#257 Ghall&#363gh&#257r&#257 in 1746, was declared head of the &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 <i>&#7693er&#257</i>, later called <i>misl</i>. The &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 and Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299 <i>jath&#257s</i> were stationed at Amritsar to protect the holy city. In 1757 when Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299 was returning homeward laden with the booty from Delhi, Mathur&#257 and &#256gr&#257, Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh made frequent night attacks on his baggage train. Commanding a band of 400 men, he plundered P&#257n&#299pat, Rohtak, H&#257&#7749s&#299 and Hiss&#257r. On the death in 1759 of Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh, his trusted associate, T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh <u>Gh</u>aib&#257, succeeded him as head of the <i>misl</i>. T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh proved to be an able leader of men and a fearless fighter. One of his first exploits was to attack a detachment of Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299's army and rob it of its horses and arms while crossing the Be&#299&#7749 river near his native village, Ka&#7749g, in Kap&#363rthal&#257 district. In 1760, he crossed the Sutlej and seized the towns of Dharamko&#7789 and Fatehga&#7771h. On his return to the Do&#257b, he took. Sar&#257i Dakkh&#257&#7751&#299 from the Af<u>gh</u>&#257n chief Saif ud-D&#299n of Jalandhar and marched eastwards seizing the country around R&#257ho&#7749. He made R&#257ho&#7749 his headquarters now. He next captured Nakodar from Mañj R&#257jp&#363ts and several other villages on the right side of the Sutlej, including Mahatpur and Ko&#7789 B&#257dal <u>Kh</u>&#257n. In 1763, T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh joined the Bha&#7749g&#299, R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 and Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misls</i> against the Pa&#7789h&#257n Naw&#257b of Kas&#363r and, in the sack of the town, collected four lakhs of rupees as his share of the booty. He joined other Sikh <i>sard&#257rs</i> in laying siege to Sirhind (January 1764) and razing it to the ground after defeating its <i>faujd&#257r</i>, Zain <u>Kh</u>&#257n.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> under T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh and his collaterals and associates held a major portion of the upperJalandhar Do&#257b, and the northern portions of Amb&#257l&#257 and Ludhi&#257&#7751&#257, with some portions of F&#299rozpur. T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh's cousin Dharam Si&#7749gh captured Loh&#299&#257&#7749 and a cluster of villages in the centre of which he founded the village of Dharamsi&#7749ghv&#257l&#257 where he set up his permanent headquarters. Other members of the <i>misl</i> seized Tih&#257&#7771&#257, on the left bank of the Sutlej. Sau&#7749dh&#257 Si&#7749gh from among them captured Khann&#257 in Ludhi&#257&#7751&#257 district; Har&#299 Si&#7749gh took Ropa&#7771, Si&#257lb&#257, Av&#257nko&#7789, S&#299sv&#257n and Kur&#257l&#299. He also occupied the forts of Khizr&#257b&#257d and N&#363rpur. Buddh Si&#7749gh of Ga&#7771h Shankar captured Ta<u>kh</u>tga&#7771h. Des&#363 Si&#7749gh of the <i>misl</i> occupied Mustaf&#257b&#257d, Arnaul&#299, Siddh&#363v&#257l, B&#257nga&#7771, &#256ml&#363 and Kullar Kha&#7771&#299&#257l. In 1760, he established his headquarters at K&#257ithal. D&#299v&#257n Si&#7749gh of the same clan captured Sikandr&#257, Ak&#257lga&#7771h and Bar&#257&#7771&#257. S&#257hib Si&#7749gh and Gurdit Si&#7749gh, two S&#257&#7749s&#299 brothers, seized L&#257&#7693v&#257 and Indr&#299. Bha&#7749g&#257 Si&#7749gh became master of Th&#257nesar and Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh and Buddh Si&#7749gh took Pehov&#257. T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh <u>Gh</u>aib&#257 however remained the central figure of the <i>misl</i>. He became a close friend and associate of Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh and took part in his early M&#257lv&#257 campaigns. After his death in 1807 at the age of 90, &#7693allev&#257l&#299&#257 territories were annexed by Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;KANHAIY&#256 MISL was founded by Jai Si&#7749gh, a Sandh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of K&#257hn&#257, 21 km southwest of Lahore on the road to F&#299rozpur. He had an humble origin, his father Khushh&#257l (Si&#7749gh) eking out his livelihood by selling hay at Lahore. Jai Si&#7749gh received the vows of the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 at the hands of Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh and joined the <i>&#7693er&#257h</i> or <i>jath&#257</i> of Amar Si&#7749gh Ki&#7749gr&#257. It is commonly believed that the name of the <i>misl</i>, Kanhaiy&#257, was derived from the name of Jai Si&#7749gh's village, K&#257hn&#257, although another explanation connects it with the Sard&#257r's own handsome appearance which earned him the epithet (K&#257hn) Kanhaiy&#257, an endearing title used for Lord K&#7771&#7779&#7751a. The Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misl</i> under Jai Si&#7749gh became the dominant power in the Punjab. He seized a part of Ri&#257&#7771k&#299 comprising the district of Gurd&#257spur and upper portions of Amritsar. He first made his wife's village, Soh&#299&#257&#7749, in Amritsar district, his headquarters from where he shifted to Ba&#7789&#257l&#257 and thence to Muker&#299&#257&#7749. His territories lay on both sides of the Rivers Be&#257s and R&#257v&#299. Jai Si&#7749gh extended his territory up to Pa&#7771ol, about 70 km southeast of Jamm&#363, and the hill chiefs of K&#257&#7749g&#7771&#257, N&#363rpur, D&#257t&#257rpur and S&#299b&#257 became his tributaries. In 1778, he with the help of Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 and Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257, drove away Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 to the desert region of H&#257&#7749s&#299 and Hiss&#257r. In 1781 Jai Si&#7749gh and his associate Haq&#299qat Si&#7749gh led an expedition to Jamm&#363 and received a sum of 3,00,000 rupees as tribute from its new ruler, Brij R&#257j Dev. On Jai Si&#7749gh's death in 1793 at the age of 81, control of the Kanhaiy&#257 clan passed into the hands of his daughter-in-law Sad&#257 Kaur, his son Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh having predeceased him. Sad&#257 Kaur whose daughter Mahit&#257b Kaur was married to Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh was mainly instrumental in the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 chief's rise to political power in the Punjab. In July 1799, she helped Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh occupy Lahore defeating the Bh&#257&#7751g&#299 chiefs, Mohar Si&#7749gh, S&#257hib Si&#7749gh and Chet Si&#7749gh. Supported by Sad&#257 Kaur, Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh made further acquisitions and assumed the title of Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 in April 1801. In the campaigns of Amritsar, Chinio&#7789, Kas&#363r and K&#257&#7749g&#7771&#257 as well as against the turbulent Pa&#7789h&#257ns of Haz&#257r&#257 and A&#7789&#7789ock, Sad&#257 Kaur led the armies side by side with Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh. The <i>entente</i> however did not last long and the two began to drift Apart. The marriage of Sad&#257 Kaur's daughter to Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh did not prove a happy one. The differences came into the open when Sad&#257 Kaur started secret negotiations with the British through Sir Charles Metcalfe and Sir David Ochterlony to secure herself the status of an independent chief. Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh started making inroads into the Kanhaiy&#257 territory and confiscated their wealth lying at A&#7789&#257lga&#7771h (Muker&#299&#257&#7749). Ba&#7789&#257l&#257 was made over as a <i>j&#257g&#299r</i> to his son Sher Si&#7749gh, while the rest of Sad&#257 Kaur's estates were placed under the governorship of Des&#257 Si&#7749gh Maj&#299&#7789h&#299&#257. Sad&#257 Kaur died in confinement in 1832.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The leader of another section of the Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misl</i> was Haq&#299qat Si&#7749gh, son of Baghel Si&#7749gh, a Siddh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789, hailing from the village of Julk&#257, near K&#257hn&#257, the birthplace of Jai Si&#7749gh. A friend and associate of Jai Si&#7749gh in many of his campaigns of conquest, Haqiqat Si&#7749gh was also his rival. Emerging an independent chief, he occupied Kal&#257naur, as K&#257hnga&#7771h, Ad&#257latga&#7771h, Pa&#7789h&#257nko&#7789 and several other villages. In 1760, Haq&#299qat Si&#7749gh destroyed Ch&#363r&#299&#257&#7749v&#257l&#257 and founded another village instead naming it Sa&#7749gatpur&#257 and constructed a fort at Fatehga&#7771h. Haq&#299qat Si&#7749gh died in 1782 and his only son Jaimal Si&#7749gh, then a minor, succeeded to his estates. Haq&#299qat Si&#7749gh's granddaughter, Chand Kaur, was married to Prince Kha&#7771ak Si&#7749gh, eldest son of Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh. Jaimal Si&#7749gh died in 1812, leaving no son. Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh seized his wealth stored up in the fort of Fatehga&#7771h, allowing the revenue of the district as subsistence allowance to his widow. All the remaining Kanhaiy&#257 territories were conferred on Prince Kha&#7771ak Si&#7749gh.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;K&#256RO&#7770SI&#7748GH&#298&#256 MISL was named after Karo&#7771&#257 Si&#7749gh, a V&#299rk Ja&#7789&#7789 of Bark&#299 in Lahore district. The founder of the <i>jath&#257</i> or band of warriors that subsequently acquired the size and power of a <i>misl</i>, was Shi&#257m Si&#7749gh of N&#257rl&#299 who had battled with the invading forces of N&#257dir Sh&#257h in 1739. He was succeeded by Karam Si&#7749gh, an Uppal Khatr&#299 of the village of Paijga&#7771h in Gurd&#257spur district. Karam Si&#7749gh fell fighting against Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299 in January 1748 and was succeeded by Karo&#7771&#257 Si&#7749gh. Karo&#7771&#257 Si&#7749gh confined his activities to the tract lying south of the K&#257&#7749g&#7771&#257 hills in Hoshi&#257rpur district, and had seized several important towns such as Hoshi&#257rpur, Hari&#257&#7751&#257 and Sh&#257m Chaur&#257s&#299 before he died in 1761. Baghel Si&#7749gh who succeeded Karo&#7771&#257 Si&#7749gh as leader of the Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257s is celebrated in Sikh history as the conqueror of Mu<u>gh</u>al Delhi. A Dh&#257l&#299v&#257l Ja&#7789&#7789, Baghel Si&#7749gh arose from the village of Jhab&#257l, in Amritsar district, to become a formidable force in the cis-Sutlej region. According to Syad Muhammad Lat&#299f, he had under him 12,000 fighting men. Soon after the Sikh conquest of Sirhind in January 1764, he extended his arms towards Karn&#257l, occupying a number of villages including Chhalaud&#299 which he later made his headquarters. In February 1764, Sikhs in a body of 40,000 under the command of Baghel Si&#7749gh and other leading warriors crossed the Yamun&#257 and captured Sah&#257ranpur. They overran the territory of Naj&#299b ud-Daulah, the Ruh&#299l&#257 chief, realizing from him a tribute of eleven lakh of rupees. In April 1775, Baghel Si&#7749gh with two other <i>sard&#257rs</i>, R&#257i Si&#7749gh Bha&#7749g&#299 and T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh <u>Gh</u>aib&#257, crossed the Yamun&#257 to overrun the country then ruled by Z&#257bit&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, son and successor of Naj&#299b ud-Daulah. Z&#257bit&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n in desperation offered Baghel Si&#7749gh large sums of money and proposed an alliance jointly to plunder the crown-lands. The combined forces of Sikhs and Ruh&#299l&#257s looted villages around the present site of New Delhi. In March 1776, they defeated the imperial forces near Muzaffarnagar. The whole of the Yamun&#257-Gangetic Do&#257b was now at their mercy. When in April 1781, Mirz&#257 Shaf&#299, a close relative of the Mu<u>gh</u>al prime minister, captured the Sikh military post at Indr&#299, 10 km south of L&#257&#7693v&#257, Baghel Si&#7749gh retaliated by attacking <u>Kh</u>al&#299l Beg <u>Kh</u>&#257n of Sh&#257h&#257b&#257d who surrendered with 300 horse, 800 foot and two pieces of cannon. When on 11 March 1783, Sikhs entered the Red Fort in Delhi and occupied the D&#299w&#257n-i-&#256m, the Mu<u>gh</u>al emperor, Sh&#257h &#256lam II, made a settlement with them agreeing to allow Baghel Si&#7749gh to raise <i>gurdw&#257r&#257s</i> on Sikh historical sites and realize six <i>&#257nn&#257s</i> in a rupee (37.5%) of all the octroi duties in the capital. Baghel Si&#7749gh stayed in Sabz&#299 Ma&#7751&#7693&#299, with 4,000 troops, and took charge of Ch&#257ndn&#299 Chowk. He located seven sites sacred to the Sikhs and had shrines raised thereon within the space of eight months from April to November 1783.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Another K&#257ro&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 scion, R&#257i Si&#7749gh, son of Mat&#257b Si&#7749gh who had killed the notorious Masse <u>Kh</u>&#257n Ra&#7749gha&#7771, seized a number of villages in Samr&#257l&#257 <i>tahs&#299l</i> of Ludhi&#257&#7751&#257 district after the Sikh conquest of Sirhind in 1764. Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh, a Sandh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of Kals&#299&#257 in Kas&#363r <i>tahs&#299l</i> of Lahore district, who was a prominent companion of Baghel Si&#7749gh, shared the exploits and conquests of the Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 <i>sard&#257r</i> and occupied <i>parganahs</i> of Chhachhraul&#299, Si&#257lb&#257, etc. Karam Si&#7749gh and Di&#257l Si&#7749gh, also from Kals&#299&#257, took possession of the Bil&#257spur <i>parganah</i>, now in Jag&#257dhar&#299. <i>tahs&#299l</i> of Amb&#257l&#257 district, and the <i>parganah</i> of Dharamko&#7789 in F&#299rozpur district, respectively. Dulch&#257 Si&#7749gh, another member of the <i>misl</i>, took possession of Radau&#7771 and D&#257ml&#257 in Karn&#257l district. In October 1774 "Dulj&#257 Si&#7749gh Bah&#257dur, "along with five other Sikh chiefs, was requested by the Mu<u>gh</u>al emperor to enter imperial service at the head of 1,000 horse and 500 foot, but he declined the offer.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The last of the prominent K&#257ro&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257 leaders was Jodh Si&#7749gh (1751-1818) , son of Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh of Kals&#299&#257. Jodh Si&#7749gh made considerable additions to his otherwise small inheritance. In 1807, he joined Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh in the attack on Narai&#7751ga&#7771h in Amb&#257l&#257 district and later fought for him in many a battle in the Punjab. The Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 granted him the tracts of Ga&#7771hdiv&#257l&#257 in Hoshi&#257rpur district, and Cha&#7771&#299k in F&#299rozpur district as rewards for his services. Jodh Si&#7749gh died in the battle of Mult&#257n in 1818, and his son, Sobh&#257 Si&#7749gh, who succeeded him ruled over Kals&#299&#257 state for 40 years until his death in 1758. Sobh&#257 Si&#7749gh's son, Lahi&#7751&#257 Si&#7749gh, who died in 1869, was followed in the chiefship by his son, Bishan Si&#7749gh (d. 1883) and grandsons Jagj&#299t Si&#7749gh (d. 1886) and Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh (d. 1908). The chief figure in Kals&#299&#257 during the twentieth century was R&#257j&#257 Ravi Sher Si&#7749gh (1902-1947) who succeeded his father, Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh, on the <i>gadd&#299</i> in 1908. The Kals&#299&#257 state acceded to the Indian Union on the lapse of British paramountcy in August 1947 and joined the Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) in 1948.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NAKA&#298 MISL was founded by H&#299r&#257 Si&#7749gh a Sandh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of Bahi&#7771v&#257l in Ch&#363n&#299&#257&#7749 <i>tahs&#299l</i> of Lahore district. His village fell in the country called Nakk&#257 which lay southwest of Lahore between the rivers R&#257vi and Sutlej. It was through this region that the highway from Lahore to Mult&#257n, Bal&#363chist&#257n and Sindh passed imparting to it the name Nakk&#257 (<i>nakk&#257</i>, in Punjabi, signifying a kind of gateway). H&#299r&#257 Si&#7749gh had taken to arms while still very young. As the Sikhs sacked Kas&#363r in 1763 and conquered Sirhind in 1764, H&#299r&#257 Si&#7749gh occupied Bah&#299&#7771v&#257l, Ch&#363n&#299&#257&#7749, D&#299p&#257lpur, Jambar, Je&#7789h&#363pur, Ka&#7749ganv&#257l and Khu&#7693&#299&#257&#7749 establishing his headquarters at Ch&#363n&#299&#257&#7749. In 1767, he led out an expedition to P&#257kpa&#7789&#7789an, but was killed in the action that took place. His son Dal Si&#7749gh being a minor, he was succeeded by his nephew N&#257har Si&#7749gh who had but a tenure of nine months falling in a battle at Ko&#7789 Kam&#257l&#299&#257 in 1768. His younger brother Ra&#7751 Si&#7749gh, who succeeded him, considerably increased the power and influence of the Naka&#299s. The territory under his control was worth nine lakhs of rupees per annum and comprised Ch&#363n&#299&#257&#7749, part of Kas&#363r, Sharakpur, Guger&#257 and, at one time, Ko&#7789 Kam&#257l&#299&#257. Ra&#7751 Si&#7749gh had a force of 2,000 horsemen, with camel swivels and a few guns. His headquarters were at Bahi&#7771v&#257l in Lahore district. Ra&#7751 Si&#7749gh died in 1781 and was succeeded by his eldest son Bhagv&#257n Si&#7749gh, whose sister, R&#257j Kaur, was married to Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh. Bhagv&#257n Si&#7749gh was succeeded by his younger brother, Gi&#257n Si&#7749gh, who died in 1807 leaving a son, K&#257hn Singh. Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh granted K&#257hn Si&#7749gh a <i>j&#257g&#299r</i> of 15,000 rupees per annum and seized all the possessions of the family.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NISH&#256N&#256&#7748V&#256L&#298 MISL, owed its origin to Dasaundh&#257 Si&#7749gh whose <i>jath&#257</i> were the standard-bearers of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257. Hence the name of the <i>jath&#257</i> or <i>misl</i>&#8212 Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299, <i>nish&#257n</i> in Punjabi meaning a flag or standard. The <i>misl</i> was originally based in Amritsar where it guarded the Holy Harimandar and also served as a reserve force of the Dal. Dasaundh&#257 Si&#7749gh, son of Chaudhar&#299 S&#257hib R&#257i, was a Gill Ja&#7789&#7789 belonging to the village of Mans&#363r in F&#299rozpur district, who, after the conquest of Sirhind by Sikhs in January 1764, took possession of Si&#7749gh&#257&#7749v&#257l&#257, again in F&#299rozpur district, S&#257hneval, Sar&#257i Lashkar&#299 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, Amloh, Dor&#257h&#257, Z&#299r&#257, and Amb&#257l&#257, establishing his headquarters at the last-named station. On his death in 1767, Dasaundh&#257 Si&#7749gh was succeeded to the headship of the <i>misl</i> by his younger brother Sa&#7749gat Si&#7749gh who made over charge of Amb&#257l&#257 to his cousins, L&#257l Si&#7749gh and Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh, and himself retired to Si&#7749gha&#7749v&#257l&#257. On Sa&#7749gat Si&#7749gh's death in 1774, L&#257l Si&#7749gh's three sons &#8212 Mohar Si&#7749gh, Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh, and An&#363p Si&#7749gh &#8212 drove out Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh from Amb&#257l&#257 dividing the Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299 territories among themselves. Mohar Si&#7749gh soon became an influential figure among the cis-Sutlej chiefs. On 9 May 1785, he and Dulch&#257 Si&#7749gh made treaties of friendship with Mah&#257dj&#299 Scindia, the all-powerful Mar&#257&#7789h&#257 deputy of the Mu<u>gh</u>al empire, and both of them received robes of honour and cash awards from him. Among other leaders of the <i>misl</i> Naudh Si&#7749gh, who was severely wounded in the battle of Sirhind (January 1764), took possession of Khe&#7771&#299 close to Sirhind, Sudh&#257 Si&#7749gh B&#257jv&#257 seized M&#257chh&#299v&#257&#7771&#257 east of Ludhi&#257&#7751&#257, while R&#257i Si&#7749gh secured 16 villages southwest of Khann&#257. Jai Si&#7749gh, another member of the <i>misl</i>, captured 27 villages in Khara&#7771. Karam Si&#7749gh acquired the <i>parganahs</i> of Sh&#257h&#257b&#257d and Ism&#257'&#299l&#257b&#257d in the present Kurukshetra district. S&#257van Si&#7749gh, a cousin of Dasaundh&#257 Si&#7749gh and Sa&#7749gat Si&#7749gh, appropriated to himself several villages around Sau&#7749&#7789&#299, near Amloh.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The military strength of the Nish&#257n&#257&#7749v&#257l&#299 <i>misl</i> had risen to 12,000 horse under Sa&#7749gat Si&#7749gh. Its territories included Amb&#257l&#257, Sh&#257h&#257b&#257d, Sau&#7749&#7789&#299, Khe&#7771i, Mori&#7751&#7693&#257, Amloh, Kh&#257nn&#257, Dor&#257h&#257, S&#257hnev&#257l, M&#257chh&#299v&#257&#7771&#257 and Z&#299r&#257. Amb&#257l&#257 was last ruled by Day&#257 Kaur, widow of Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh who had died in 1786. Upon Day&#257 Kaur's death in 1823, her estates and property lapsed to the British government.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;PH&#362LK&#298&#256&#7748 MISL. An eighteenth-century Sikh ruling clan, which arose in the region south of the River Sutlej and was counted the twelfth <i>misl</i> though it did not form part of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 like the eleven others. It traced its origin to Ph&#363l (d. 1652), a Siddh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of Mehr&#257j, now in Ba&#7789hi&#7751&#7693&#257 district of the Punjab, who had met gur&#363 Har R&#257i, N&#257nak VII, during his travels in the M&#257lv&#257 area and received his blessing. From amongst his seven sons Tilok Si&#7749gh (Tilok&#257), the eldest, was the ancestor of the princely states of N&#257bh&#257 and J&#299nd, and R&#257m Si&#7749gh (R&#257m&#257), next to him, forefather of the rulers of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257. R&#257m Si&#7749gh and Tilok Si&#7749gh were devoted disciples of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh, who had called upon them by a <i>hukamn&#257m&#257</i> for a detachment of cavalry and had blessed their house as his own &#8212 <i>ter&#257 Ghar mer&#257 asai</i>. They had helped Band&#257 Si&#7749gh Bah&#257dur with men and money in his early exploits. B&#257b&#257 &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh, the third son of R&#257m Si&#7749gh, was a brave soldier and an astute politician who laid the foundation of the Ph&#363lk&#299&#257&#7749 fortunes by carving out the principality of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257. During his early career, he was engaged in warfare with the Bha&#7789&#7789&#299s and the Af<u>gh</u>&#257ns. By 1732, he had conquered a vast territory around Barn&#257l&#257 which served as his headquarters. In the forties and fifties during the Durr&#257n&#299-Mu<u>gh</u>al clashes in the Punjab, &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh extended his hold over a number of villages in the <i>sark&#257r</i> of Sirhind and occupied important towns such as Sun&#257m, Sam&#257&#7751&#257, Sanaur and &#7788oh&#257&#7751&#257. In 1753, he started building a fort about 100 km east of Barn&#257l&#257 around which grew the present city of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 (<i>pa&#7789&#7789&#299</i> = ward; &#257l&#257, of &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh) and which became his capital in 1763. B&#257b&#257 &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh died in August 1765 and was succeeded by his grandson, Amar Si&#7749gh, who received the title of R&#257j&#257-i-R&#257jg&#257n from the Durr&#257n&#299 king, Ahmad Sh&#257h. He formed a number of alliances and fought a wide variety of opponents and acquired further territory including Ba&#7789hi&#7751&#7693&#257, M&#257ns&#257, Ko&#7789 Kap&#363r&#257, Saif&#257b&#257d and Piñjaur. Under him Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 became the most powerful state between the Yamun&#257 and the Sutlej. Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Amar Si&#7749gh was succeeded in 1782 by his seven-year-old son, S&#257hib Si&#7749gh, who like other cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs accepted British protection in 1809.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; R&#257j&#257 S&#257hib Si&#7749gh died in 1813. After him Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 state was ruled successively by Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Karam Si&#7749gh (1813-45), Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Narinder Si&#7749gh (1845-62), Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Mohinder Si&#7749gh (1862-76), Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 R&#257jinder Si&#7749gh (1876-1900) and Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Bh&#363pinder Si&#7749gh (1900-38). Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Sir Y&#257davinder Si&#7749gh, the last ruler, signed the instrument of accession to independent India in 1947, and the state was merged into what became Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 and East Punjab States Union in 1948.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ham&#299r Si&#7749gh, a descendant of B&#257b&#257 Ph&#363l through his eldest son Tilok Si&#7749gh, laid foundation of what lasted into present times as N&#257bh&#257 state. He founded the town of N&#257bh&#257 in 1755. In 1764 he joined B&#257b&#257 &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh and the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 in the conquest of Sirhind and received the <i>parganah</i> of Amloh as his share of the spoils. He then declared his independence and exercised the right of coining money. On his death in December 1783, Ham&#299r Si&#7749gh was succeeded by his eight-year-old son Jasvant Si&#7749gh, who conducted protracted campaigns first against J&#299nd and then against Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 to regain disputed territory for his state. With the help of General Perron of the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257 service, he succeeded in checking the advance of the Irish adventurer, George Thomas. Jasvant Si&#7749gh joined hands with the other cis-Sutlej princes in the 1809 treaty with the British under which they came under the protection of the East India Company.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; After the death of R&#257j&#257 Jasvant Si&#7749gh in 1840, N&#257bh&#257 state was successively ruled by R&#257j&#257 Devinder Si&#7749gh (1840-46) , R&#257j&#257 Bharp&#363r Si&#7749gh (1847-63), R&#257j&#257 Bhagv&#257n Si&#7749gh (1864-71), Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 H&#299r&#257 Si&#7749gh (1871-1911), and Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ripudaman Si&#7749gh (1911-23). Ripudaman Si&#7749gh who was deposed in 1923 was succeeded by his son Prat&#257p Si&#7749gh who after Independence signed the instrument of succession to the Union of India in 1947.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Gajpat Si&#7749gh (1738-89), the middle son of Sukhchain Si&#7749gh (d. 1751), was the founder of the third of the Ph&#363lk&#299&#257&#7749 states &#8212 J&#299nd. Sukhchain Si&#7749gh was the younger brother of Gurdit Si&#7749gh from whom originated the ruling family of N&#257bh&#257. In 1764, Gajpat Si&#7749gh joined the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 under Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 and took part in the conquest of Sirhind. He seized the districts of J&#299nd and Saf&#299do&#7749 and overran P&#257n&#299pat and Karn&#257l. In 1766, he made J&#299nd his capital. Unlike other Sikh chiefs, he continued to acknowledge the Mu<u>gh</u>al authority in Delhi. Gajpat Si&#7749gh was in constant war with the N&#257bh&#257 chief having seized his territories Amloh, Bh&#257dso&#7749 and Sa&#7749gr&#363r in 1774. His daughter, R&#257j Kaur, married to Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh of the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 <i>misl</i>, became the mother of Mah&#257r&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh. Gajpat Si&#7749gh died in 1789 and was succeeded by his elder son Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh (1768-1818), the younger, Ka&#7749var Bh&#363p Si&#7749gh, taking the estate of Ba&#7693rukkh&#257&#7749. Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh was responsible for checking the advance of George Thomas towards the Sikh territories and later on of General Perron of the Mar&#257&#7789h&#257 service. R&#257j&#257 Bh&#257g Si&#7749gh died in 1819 and was succeeded by his son, Fateh Si&#7749gh. His successor coming to the <i>gadd&#299</i> in 1822 died childless in 1834. Then followed a protracted debate among the British government and the Ph&#363lk&#299&#257&#7749 chiefs and <i>j&#257g&#299rd&#257rs</i> over whether the state should escheat to the British or a successor with the best claim be located. After rejecting the claims of N&#257bh&#257 and Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257, the British decided in 1837 in favour of Sar&#363p Si&#7749gh (1812-64) of Baz&#299dpur and declared that he would inherit J&#299nd and Saf&#299do&#7749, which had been acquired by R&#257j&#257 Gajpat Si&#7749gh whose descendant he claimed to be. The remainder of J&#299nd territories which had been received as grants from Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh were to be divided between the British and Ranj&#299t Si&#7749gh, the former taking all estates granted before the treaty of 1809 and the latter resuming the grants made afterwards. It was through this decision that the British obtained Ludhi&#257&#7751&#257. The next rulers in succession were R&#257j&#257 Raghb&#299r Si&#7749gh (1864-87), and R&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751b&#299r Si&#7749gh (1887-1948). R&#257j&#257 Ra&#7751b&#299r Si&#7749gh died on 1 April 1948, and was succeeded by his son R&#257jb&#299r Si&#7749gh, during whose time J&#299nd state joined the Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU).</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;R&#256MGA&#7770H&#298&#256 MISL took its name from R&#257m Rau&#7751&#299, an enclosure of unbaked bricks raised in Amritsar during the time of Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh for the protection of Sikhs in the troubled days of the eighteenth century. The fortress was later reinforced by Sikhs and made into a fort called R&#257mga&#7771h. Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh became famous in Sikh history as Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257. He gained reputation as a soldier of daring and skill. He along with his brothers Jai Si&#7749gh, <u>Kh</u>ush&#257l Si&#7749gh and M&#257l&#299 Si&#7749gh took up service under &#256d&#299n&#257 Beg, <i>faujd&#257r</i> of the Jalandhar Do&#257b, which he quit when the Sikhs taunted him with betrayal of the Panth. To begin with, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh joined hands with Jai Si&#7749gh of the Kanhaiy&#257 <i>misl</i> and within a short time they seized large slices of territory in four out of the five Do&#257bs. Among their acquisitions was the fertile tract called Ri&#257&#7771k&#299 to the north of Amritsar embracing the district of Gurd&#257spur. Within a decade Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh became one of the leading figures of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257. In 1770, he led plundering expeditions into the hills. The local r&#257j&#257s sought safety in submission and Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh collected a tribute of 2,00,000 rupees from the K&#257&#7749g&#7771&#257 hill states. Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257, along with other Sikh <i>sard&#257rs</i>, fought many pitched battles against Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299, the Af<u>gh</u>&#257n invader. As the Af<u>gh</u>&#257n threat receded, Sikh <i>sard&#257rs</i> began fighting among themselves. The R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 Kanhaiy&#257 cleavage over their adjoining territories in the district of Gurd&#257spur and, Hoshi&#257rpur widened. In the battle of D&#299n&#257nagar in 1775, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 joined the Bh&#257&#7749g&#299 <i>sard&#257rs</i> against the forces of the Kanhaiy&#257s and the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s. Soon a rift appeared between Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 and Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 as the latter wrested the town of Zah&#363r&#257, which fell within R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 territory, and conferred it upon Baghel Si&#7749gh Karo&#7771si&#7749gh&#299&#257. Jai Si&#7749gh Kanhaiy&#257 sought the help of Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 and the R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 Sard&#257r had to flee the Punjab.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Driven out of the Punjab, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh became a soldier of fortune. He took possession of Hiss&#257r and raised a large body of irregular horse, his depredations extending to the gates of Delhi and its suburbs, and into the Gangetic Do&#257b. Once he penetrated into Delhi itself, and carried off four guns from the Mu<u>gh</u>al arsenal. The Naw&#257b of Meerut agreed to pay him 10,000 rupees an year on his agreeing to leave his district unmolested. Soon a body of 30,000 horse and foot under him and Karam Si&#7749gh Shah&#299d crossed into Sah&#257ranpur district, ravaging it at will. On the death of Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 in 1783, Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 returned to the Punjab and recovered his lost possessions. He allied himself with the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s, and their combined forces broke the power of the Kanhaiy&#257s.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;At the height of its power, R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 <i>misl</i>'s territories in the B&#257r&#299 Do&#257b included Ba&#7789&#257l&#257, Kal&#257naur, D&#299n&#257nagar, Sr&#299 Hargobindpur, Sh&#257hpur Ka&#7751&#7693i, Gurd&#257spur, Q&#257d&#299&#257&#7749, Ghum&#257n , Mattev&#257l, and in the Jalandhar Do&#257b, U&#7771mu&#7771 &#7788&#257&#7751&#7693&#257, Sar&#299h, Mi&#257&#7751&#299, Ga&#7771hdiv&#257l&#257 and Zah&#363r&#257. In the hills K&#257&#7751g&#7771&#257, N&#363rpur, Ma&#7751&#7693&#299 and Chamb&#257 paid tribute to Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh died in April 1803 at the ripe age of 80, leaving two sons, Jodh Si&#7749gh and V&#299r Si&#7749gh, the former of whom succeeded him. Jodh Si&#7749gh was a deeply religious person. He built the R&#257mgarh&#299&#257 Bu&#7749g&#257 on the premises of the Harimandar at Amritsar and supplied blocks of perforated marble that served as parapets on both sides of the causeway leading to the sanctuary. Jodh Si&#7749gh's possessions were encroached upon by his more active cousin, D&#299v&#257n Si&#7749gh, son of T&#257r&#257 Si&#7749gh. In 1808, Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh took possession of the territories of the R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 <i>misl</i>. The same year he captured the fortress of R&#257mga&#7771h, destroying all the R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 citadels. Adequate pensions were provided for D&#299v&#257n Si&#7749gh and Jodh Si&#7749gh, the leaders of the once powerful R&#257mga&#7771h&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> which had like many others collapsed under pressure of the new rising power in the Punjab.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;SHAH&#298D MISL owed its origin to B&#257b&#257 D&#299p Si&#7749gh Shah&#299d (1682-1757) belonging to the village of Pah&#363vi&#7751&#7693 in Amritsar district. D&#299p Si&#7749gh had received the vows of the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 at the hands of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh. He rejoined in 1706 Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh, then at Talva&#7751&#7693&#299 S&#257bo, 28 km southeast of Ba&#7789hi&#7751&#7693&#257 and, after the latter's departure for the South, stayed on there to look after the sacred shrine, Damdam&#257 S&#257hib. He had four copies of the Gur&#363 Granth S&#257hib made from the recension prepared earlier by Bh&#257&#299 Man&#299 Si&#7749gh under the supervision of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh during their stay at Damdam&#257 S&#257hib. In 1733, when the Mu<u>gh</u>al governor of Lahore made peace with the Sikhs offering them <i>naw&#257bship</i> and a <i>j&#257g&#299r</i>, D&#299p Si&#7749gh, now reverently called <i>B&#257b&#257</i>, i.e. the elder, joined Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh, who had been invested with the title of Naw&#257b, and received command of one of the five <i>jath&#257s</i> that constituted the newly formed Taru&#7751&#257 Dal. These <i>jath&#257s</i> were redesignated <i>misls</i> in 1748 and the <i>jath&#257</i> headed by D&#299p Si&#7749gh came to be known as Shah&#299d <i>misl</i> after he met with the death of a martyr (<i>sh&#257h&#299d</i>, in Punjabi). The <i>misls</i>, the number increasing to twelve, soon established their hegemony over different regions in the Punjab.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Shah&#299d <i>misl</i> was mostly made up of Niha&#7749gs, a class of warriors which owed its origin to B&#257b&#257 Fateh Si&#7749gh, son of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh. They wore blue, with heavy bangles of steel upon their wrists and quoits around their heads. The Shah&#299ds had their sphere of influence south of the River Sutlej. The Shah&#299ds under D&#299p Si&#7749gh had their headquarters at Talva&#7751&#7693&#299 S&#257bo. They also held control of the Harimandar at Amritsar. In 1757 Jah&#257n <u>Kh</u>&#257n, Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299's commander-in-chief and deputy to his son, Taim&#363r Sh&#257h, the governor of the Punjab, invested the town, razed the Sikh fortress of R&#257m Rau&#7751&#299 and desecrated the shrine filling up the sacred pool. The Shah&#299ds led by Gurba<u>kh</u>sh Si&#7749gh had defended the holy premises valiantly , but failed to stem the onslaught. As the news reached D&#299p Si&#7749gh at Talva&#7751&#7693&#299 S&#257bo, he set out with his <i>jath&#257</i> towards the Holy City. Many Sikhs joined him on the way so that when he arrived at Tarn T&#257ran he had at his command a force of 5,000 men. Jah&#257n <u>Kh</u>&#257n's troops lay in wait for them near Gohlv&#257&#7771 village 8 km ahead. They barred their way and a fierce action took place. D&#299p Si&#7749gh was mortally wounded near R&#257msar, yet such was the firmness of his resolve to reach the holy precincts that he carried on the battle until he fell dead in the close vicinity of the Harimandar. This was on 11 November 1757.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; After D&#299p Si&#7749gh's death, the leadership of the <i>misl</i> passed on to Karam Si&#7749gh, a Sandh&#363 Ja&#7789&#7789 belonging to the village of Mar&#257hk&#257 in Shei<u>kh</u>&#363pur&#257 district, now in Pakistan. In January 1764, at the conquest of the Sirhind province by the Sikhs, he seized a number of villages in the <i>parganahs</i> of Kesar&#299 and Sh&#257hz&#257dpur in Amb&#257l&#257 district yielding about a lakh of rupees annually. Karam Si&#7749gh made Sh&#257hz&#257dpur his headquarters though he lived for most of the time at Talva&#7751&#7693&#299 S&#257bo (Damdam&#257 S&#257hib). In 1773, he overran a large tract of land belonging to Z&#257bit&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n Ruh&#299l&#257 in the upper Gangetic Do&#257b. He captured a number of villages in Sah&#257ranpur district. After Karam Si&#7749gh's death in 1784, his elder son, Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh, succeeded to the headship of the <i>misl</i>. On Gul&#257b Si&#7749gh's death in 1844, his son Shiv Kirp&#257l Si&#7749gh succeeded to the family estate, the <i>misl</i> having become extinct in 1809 after the cis-Sutlej Sikh states had accepted British protection.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;SI&#7748GHPUR&#298&#256 (or FAIZULL&#256PUR&#298&#256) MISL was founded by Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh, a V&#299rk Ja&#7789&#7789 of the village of K&#257leke, now in Shei<u>kh</u>upur&#257 district of Pakistan Punjab. The <i>misl</i> got its name from Faizull&#257pur, a village in Amritsar district which Kapur Si&#7749gh had wrested from its Muslim chief, Faizull&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, and, conquering the country around, given it the name of Si&#7749ghpur&#257. Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh was eleven years old at the time of Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh's passing away. His physical courage and warlike spirit were valuable qualities in those days of high adventure. He soon gained a position of eminence among Sikhs then engaged in a desperate struggle against the Mu<u>gh</u>al rulers. When in 1733 Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n, the Mu<u>gh</u>al governor of Lahore, decided to make peace with the Sikhs, he offered them a <i>j&#257g&#299r</i> and title of Naw&#257b for their leader. The <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 chose with one voice Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh to receive the title. Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh now proceeded to restructuring the Sikh fighting force. The whole body of the <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 was formed into two sections, the Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Dal, army of the veterans, and the Taru&#7751&#257 Dal, army of the young. The <i>entente</i> with the Mu<u>gh</u>als did not last long and, before the harvest of 1735, Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n sent a force and occupied the <i>j&#257g&#299r</i>. Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh and his band were driven away towards the M&#257lv&#257 by Lakhpat R&#257i, the Hindu minister at the Mu<u>gh</u>al court at Lahore. During his sojourn in the M&#257lv&#257, Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh conquered the territory of Sun&#257m and made it over to &#256l&#257 Si&#7749gh of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257. He also attacked Sirhind and defeated the Mu<u>gh</u>al governor. Returning to Amritsar, he successfully routed, in 1736, the force led by Lakhpat R&#257i, killing two important <i>faujd&#257rs</i>, Jam&#257l <u>Kh</u>&#257n and T&#257t&#257r <u>Kh</u>&#257n, in the battle. With 2,000 followers Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh entered, in disguise, the city of Lahore with a view to capturing the governor, Zakar&#299y&#257 <u>Kh</u>&#257n. Driven back, Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh proceeded towards Delhi, the imperial capital. He overran Far&#299d&#257b&#257d, Balabhga&#7771h and Gu&#7771g&#257on and laid contributions on Jhajjar, Doj&#257&#7751&#257 and Pa&#7789aud&#299. In 1748 at the time of the organization of the Dal <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257, a confederation of various <i>misls</i>, Naw&#257b Kap&#363r Si&#7749gh handed over leadership of the Sikhs to Jass&#257 Si&#7749gh &#256hl&#363v&#257l&#299&#257 and himself continued to guide the destinies of the newly formed Si&#7749ghpur&#299&#257 house or <i>misl</i>. On his death in 1753, charge of the <i>misl</i> came into the hands of his nephew <u>Kh</u>ushh&#257l Si&#7749gh who made further territorial acquisitions. Capturing Jalandhar in 1759, he made it his capital, and seized the <i>parganahs</i> of Haibatpur and Pa&#7789&#7789&#299 from the Pa&#7789h&#257n chief of Kas&#363r. At the time of the conquest of Sirhind by Sikhs in January 1764, he got Bharatga&#7771h, Machhal&#299, Ghanaul&#299, Manaul&#299 and several other villages as his share of the booty. <u>Kh</u>ushh&#257l Si&#7749gh and R&#257j&#257 Amar Si&#7749gh of Pa&#7789i&#257l&#257 took from the Naw&#257b of R&#257iko&#7789 23 villages around Chhat and Ban&#363&#7771 which remained under their joint control for several years. The Si&#7749ghpur&#299&#257 territory yielded annually two lakhs in the B&#257r&#299 Do&#257b, one lakh in the Jalandhar Do&#257b and one and a half lakh in the Sirhind province.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <u>Kh</u>ushh&#257l Si&#7749gh died in 1795 and was succeeded by his son Buddh Si&#7749gh. But like other <i>sard&#257rs</i>, Buddh Si&#7749gh also succumbed to the rising power of Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh who occupied his B&#257r&#299 Do&#257b and Jalandhar Do&#257b territories. He was forced to shift to his estates below the River Sutlej, with Manaul&#299 as his new headquarters. Buddh Si&#7749gh died in 1816 leaving behind seven sons. The cis-Sutlej remnants of the Si&#7749ghpur&#299&#257 <i>misl</i> were eventually annexed by the British.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;SUKKARCHAKK&#298&#256 MISL, named after the village of Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 in Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 district, now in Pakistan, to which its founders belonged, became ultimately the most important of the twelve eighteenth-century Sikh ruling clans. Des&#363, a Ja&#7789&#7789 cultivator of that village, is said to have been administered the rites of initiation by Gur&#363 Gobind Si&#7749gh. He received the name of Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Si&#7749gh. Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Si&#7749gh laid the foundation of the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 fortunes. His feats of endurance and daring in those days of adventure and plunder made him a legendary figure. Along with him his Piebald mare, Des&#257&#7749, became famous too. Together they traversed the plains of the Punjab and swam its broad rivers in flood many times and, being inseparable, came to be known jointly as Des&#257&#7749 Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Si&#7749gh. When Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Si&#7749gh died in 1718, there were scars of forty wounds by spear, sword and matchlock counted upon his body. He left his sons a few villages they could call their own and many others in the neighbourhood which paid them a fixed sum as protection tax. Bu&#7693&#7693h&#257 Si&#7749gh's son, Naudh Si&#7749gh, fortified Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 and raised a <i>jath&#257</i> or body of men acquiring the name of Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s. The Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s joined forces with other <i>misls </i>and engaged in skirmishes with Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299. As the Af<u>gh</u>&#257ns retreated, they took possession of parts of the land between the R&#257v&#299 and the Jehlum. Naudh Si&#7749gh was killed in a battle in 1752. Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh, who was eldest of Naudh Si&#7749gh's four sons, moved his headquarters from Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 to Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 and erected battlements round the town. The Af<u>gh</u>&#257n governor of Lahore came to apprehend Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh but was repulsed by the Sard&#257r and forced to retreat, leaving behind his guns and stocks of grain. Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh extended his domains by capturing the towns of Waz&#299r&#257b&#257d, Emin&#257b&#257d and Roht&#257s, but as Ahmad Sh&#257h Durr&#257n&#299 again came down from Afghanistan, he fled to the jungles. The Durr&#257n&#299 pillaged his estates and had the fortifications of Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 demolished. Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh more than settled his account with the Af<u>gh</u>&#257ns by chasing them on their return march and plundering their baggage trains. He rebuilt the battlements round Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 and reoccupied the neighbouring country. His last foray was into Jamm&#363 in 1770 where most of the wealthy families of the Punjab had sought shelter against Af<u>gh</u>&#257n depredations. The Bha&#7749g&#299s disputed his right to plunder Jamm&#363 and in one of the skirmishes Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh fell mortally wounded by the bursting of his own matchlock.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Cha&#7771hat Si&#7749gh's young son, Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh, inherited his father's spirit and ambition. He married a daughter of Gajpat Si&#7749gh, the chief of J&#299nd, thereby strengthening his own position among the <i>misl</i> <i>sard&#257rs</i>. Within the walled town of Gujr&#257&#7749w&#257l&#257 he built a fortress which he named Ga&#7771h&#299 Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh. He increased the number of his horsemen to 6,000 and launched upon a career of conquest and expansion of territory. He captured Ras&#363lnagar from a Muslim tribe, the Cha&#7789&#7789h&#257s, and took Pi&#7751&#7693&#299 Bha&#7789&#7789&#299&#257n, S&#257h&#299v&#257l, '&#298s&#257<u>kh</u>el and Jha&#7749g. In 1782, he proceeded to Jamm&#363 whose Dogr&#257 ruler fled leaving the rich city to the mercy of his men. With the loot of Jamm&#363, Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh raised the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257s from a position of comparative obscurity to that of being one of the leaders of the <i>misl</i> order.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Mah&#257&#7749 Si&#7749gh died in 1790. At his death, his 10 year-old son, Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh, became the head of the Sukkarchakk&#299&#257 house. Young Ra&#7751j&#299t Si&#7749gh had inherited from his forefathers a sizeable estate in north-western Punjab, a band of intrepid horse and matchlockmen, and an ambition that knew no bounds. In due course, he liquidated the <i>misls</i> north of the Sutlej and became the powerful sovereign of the Punjab.</p> </font> <p class="BIB"> BIBLIOGRAPHY<p class="C1"><ol class="C1"><li class="C1"> Bha&#7749g&#363, Ratan Si&#7749gh, <i> Pr&#257ch&#299n Panth Prak&#257sh </i>. Amritsar, 1914<BR> <li class="C1"> Gi&#257n Si&#7749gh, Gi&#257n&#299, <i> Tw&#257r&#299<u>kh</u> Gur&#363 <u>Kh</u>&#257ls&#257 </i> [Reprint]. Patiala, 1970<BR> <li class="C1"> S&#299tal, Sohan Si&#7749gh, <i> Sikh Misl&#257&#7749 </i>. Ludhiana, 1952<BR> <li class="C1"> Browne, James, <i> History of the Origin and Progress of the Sicks </i>. London, 1788<BR> <li class="C1"> Forster, George, <i> A Journey from Bengal to England </i>, 2 vols. London, 1798<BR> <li class="C1"> Malcolm, John, <i> Sketch of the Sikhs: A Singular Nation who Inhabit the Province of the Punjab </i>. London, 1812<BR> <li class="C1"> Cunningham, Joseph Davey, <i> A History of the Sikhs from the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej </i>. London, 1849<BR> <li class="C1"> Bhagat Singh, <i> Sikh Polity in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries </i>. Delhi, 1978<BR> <li class="C1"> Nayyar, Gurbachan Singh, <i> Sikh Polity and Political Institutions </i>. Delhi, 1975<BR> <li class="C1"> Gupta, Hari Ram, <i> History of the Sikhs </i>, vol. IV. Delhi, 1982<BR> <li class="C1"> Sinha, N.K., <i> Rise of the Sikh Power </i>: Calcutta, 1960<BR> <li class="C1"> Kushwant Singh, <i> A History of the Sikhs </i>, vol. I. Princeton, 1963<BR> <li class="C1"> Gandhi, Surjit Singh, <i> Struggle of the Sikhs for Sovereignty </i>. Delhi, 1980<BR> <li class="C1"> Banga, Indu, <i> Agrarian System of the Sikhs </i>. Delhi, 1978<BR> <li class="C1"> Harbans Singh, <i> The Heritage of the Sikhs </i>. Delhi, 1983<BR> <li class="C1"> Ganda Si&#7749gh, <i> Ahmad Shah Durrani </i>. Bombay, 1959<BR> <li class="C1"> and Teja Singh, <i> A Short History of the Sikhs </i>. Bombay, 1950<BR> <li class="C1"> Nripinder Singh, <i> The Sikh Moral Tradition </i>. Delhi, 1990<BR> </ol><p class="CONT">Har&#299 R&#257m Gupta<br></p><BR> </font><img src="counter.aspx" width="1px" height="1px" alt=""></HTML></BODY>