ÿþ<HTML><HEAD><TITLE>BRAHMO SAM&#256J</TITLE> <style type="text/css"> .BODY { background-color: #EAF1F7; background-image: url('images/gtbh.jpg'); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-attachment: fixed; background-position: center; color: #0066CC;} .C1{text-align: justify;color: #0066CC;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} .BIB{text-align: center;color: #000099;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} .CONT{text-align: right;color: #FF0000;FONT-size: SMALL;FONT-family: Tahoma;} </style><META NAME="keywords" CONTENT="BRAHMO,SAMJ"> <META http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"></HEAD> <BODY class="BODY" oncontextmenu="return false" ondragstart="return false" onselectstart="return false"> <FONT ALIGN="JUSTIFY" FACE="Tahoma"> <p class="C1">&#65279BRAHMO SAM&#256J, The expression "Brahmo Sam&#257j" (correct transcription, "Brahma Sam&#257ja") literally stands for a society of the worshippers of Brahman, the Supreme Reality, according to Hindu philosophy. It is the name of the Theistic Church founded by R&#257j&#257 R&#257mmohun Roy (1772-1833), in Calcutta on 20 August 1828. The history of the movement leading to the foundation of this "house of worship" is intimately bound up with that of the individual career of R&#257mmohun Roy. Born in the village of R&#257dh&#257nagar in the district of Hooghly, West Bengal, of wealthy and orthodox Br&#257hma&#7751 (Vai&#7779&#7751ava) parents, he received in his boyhood the traditional education of the country and attained remarkable proficiency in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit. Later in life he learnt English, Greek, Latin and Hebrew. A study of the Qur'&#257n and Islamic theology shook his faith in the popular idolatrous forms of Hindu worship and made him a lifelong admirer of the uncompromising monotheism of Islam. A profound acquaintance with the Upani&#7779ads, the <i>Brahmas&#363tra</i> and the <i>G&#299t&#257</i> and Indian philosophical literature in general, convinced him that the concept of the unity of the Godhead was the very essence of Hinduism. He had also deeply studied the philosophy of the Br&#257hma&#7751ical Tantras. He studied M&#257h&#257y&#257na Buddhism together with its later decadent phases, and he is said also to have mastered some Jaina scriptural texts. He had also a considerable familiarity, presumably due to his travels in upper India and stay at Ban&#257ras and Pa&#7789n&#257 as well as through his command over the Hindi language, with the literature of the medieval Indian <i>bhakti</i> movement. He drew inspiration from it and specifically claimed medieval saints like Kab&#299r, D&#257d&#363, and others as among the spiritual ancestors' of his own monotheistic creed. His study of Indian and Islamic thought movements was thus comprehensive and almost always firsthand.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Knowledge of a number of European languages enabled him to master both the spiritual and secular traditions of Western thought. By a cultivation of Christian scriptures he acquired a profound respect for the moral precepts of Jesus Christ. His secular studies included the literature of empirical philosophy from Bacon to Locke, the propaganda of free thinking and illumination as represented by Hume, Voltaire, Volney, Thomas Paine and others, the philosophy of utilitarianism as propounded by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill and some forms of contemporary Socialist thought and movement, particularly the school of Robert Owen. His extensive studies in philosophy and comparative religion thus prepared R&#257mmohun Roy for the task to which he was to devote his life - the task of restoring Hinduism to its original norm of a monistic and monotheistic creed. He was however not a revivalist and was fully alive to the challenge that had arisen in the shape of the introduction of Western science and thought. He felt strongly the need of a new philosophy of life, which would, without sacrificing the genuine spiritual heritage of India, absorb and assimilate the spirit of modernism imported from the West. He warmly advocated the introduction of Western science and technology into the educational curriculum of India and became a pioneer of English education and enlightened journalism in this country. He fought the superstitions and prejudices that had gripped the contemporary Hindu community, raised his voice against the caste system and was chiefly instrumental in inducing the British government to abolish the rite of <i>sat&#299</i> or burning widows alive. He laid the foundation of political agitation in India, appeared publicly as an advocate of the liberty of the press as well as the champion of the exploited Indian peasantry. In fact deeply religious as he was, he had conceived religion not as a narrow personal creed, but as an all-pervading elevating principle operating in every sphere of individual, social and national life.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The foundation of the Brahmo Sam&#257j brought to a focal point this comprehensive scheme of religious, social, intellectual and political transformation of India as visualised and formulated by R&#257mmohun Roy. The uncompromising monotheism of Islam, the doctrine of self-knowledge of the Upani&#7779ads, the moral teachings of Christ, the liberal social message of Buddhism and the deep and simple piety of the saints of the medieval Indian <i>bhakti</i> movement had helped to shape this universal outlook. The result was however not syncretism, but synthesis, R&#257mmohun's emphasis being always on the unity of the fundamentals of the diverse faiths. The Brahmo Sam&#257j was conceived by its founder not as the religious organization of a particular sect, but as a fellowship of worship which could be joined by anyone irrespective of his or her sectarian affiliation. The worship was made strictly monotheistic, no image, picture, symbol or any other created thing being allowed into the premises where it was conducted. The character of the service, though universal, was decidedly Hindu and at this stage it consisted of readings from the Vedas, exposition of the Upani&#7779ads and devotional music. The distinction of caste was not observed by the Hindus present, except in one respect. The Teleg&#363 Br&#257hma&#7751s engaged to recite the Vedas could not be persuaded to admit non-Br&#257hma&#7751 listeners to their presence and had to be placed within a separate enclosure. But the Upani&#7779ads were explained by the more liberal Bengali Br&#257hma&#7751 <i>pa&#7751&#7693its</i> to the general audience (including non-Br&#257hma&#7751s, and sometimes non-Hindus) in violation of the orthodox rules of caste. In respect of religious music which he introduced into the Brahmo Sam&#257j service, R&#257mmohun had certainly been influenced by the practice of singing hymns as part of the Christian Church service. He however also drew inspiration from the examples of the followers of Gur&#363 N&#257nak, D&#257d&#363 and Kab&#299r as he had clearly indicated in his tract <i>Pr&#257rthan&#257patra</i> (1823) and it is not difficult to see that Sikh <i>&#347abdas</i> had a large share in moulding R&#257mmohun Roy's outlook in this regard. The creed of the Brahmo Sam&#257j as conceived by R&#257mmohun Roy was monotheism, its philosophy monism and its social ideal service to humanity. In his own interpretation of the Ved&#257nta, R&#257mmohun was a monist and he mainly followed &#346a&#7749kara except on four points, viz. (a) he laid, consistently with his monistic or <i>advaita</i> position, a much greater emphasis on <i>up&#257san&#257</i> (adoration and prayer); (b) he declared <i>Brahmajñ&#257na</i> (knowledge of Brahman) and <i>mok&#7779a</i> (final liberation) to be within reach of the householder (<i>grihastha</i>); (c) he assigned a much more positive role than the conventional <i>advaitin</i> would be prepared to do to the doctrine of <i>m&#257y&#257</i> as the creative power of Brahman; (d) he recognized the ideal of humanism and service as an adjunct to his <i>brahmav&#257d&#257</i> (belief in Brahman) as absolute.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Brahmo Sam&#257j after remaining moribund for a few years following R&#257mmohun's departure for England in 1830 and his premature death in 1833, was provided with a solid organizational framework by Debendran&#257th Tagore (1817-1905), eldest son of Dw&#257rk&#257n&#257th Tagore, R&#257mmohun's trusted friend and collaborator. In 1839, Debendran&#257th established the Tattvabodhin&#299 Sabh&#257 the declared objective of which was "the extensive propagation of Brahmo Dharma. " The Sabh&#257 at once became the organizational wing of the infant Brahmo Sam&#257j and on its platform assembled all sections of progressive elements in contemporary Bengal, including Pa&#7751&#7693it &#298svarchandra Vidy&#257s&#257gar, philanthropist and social reformer, Akshay Kum&#257r Datta, rationalist and one of the makers of Bengali prose, R&#257jendral&#257l Mitra, noted oriental scholar, R&#257jnar&#257ya&#7751 Bose, the saintly scholar and grandfather of Sr&#299 Aurobindo, &#298svarchandra Gupta, poet and journalist, and a number of brilliant young students of the Hindu College belonging to the group known as "Young Bengal. " Rituals and ceremonies of the Church were now drawn up, the most prominent being the system of initiation and the form of divine service. On 21 December 1843, Debendran&#257th, along with twenty of his companions, was formally initiated into the new faith and the foundations of a sect of Brahmos were laid. A system of subscribed membership was started. Up to 1866, the year of the first schism in the history of the organization, Debendran&#257th remained the accredited leader of the Calcutta Brahmo Sam&#257j which maintained and carried forward the best traditions of the days of R&#257mmohun Roy. A remarkable change that occurred in Brahmoism during this epoch was the formal abandonment of the belief in the infallibility of scriptures. The basis of Brahmoism was declared to be "the human heart illumined by spiritual knowledge born of self-realization. " The monotheistic creed of the Sam&#257j was however still regarded as the noblest and purest expression of Hinduism and the Hindu &#346astras (minus their polytheistic accretions) continued to be studied with respect. Less intellectual and more spiritual in his mental make-up than R&#257mmohun Roy, Debendran&#257th laid a more pronounced emphasis on <i>bhakti</i> or devotion in his exposition of the &#346&#257stras and ultimately veered round to qualified monism (Vi&#347i&#7779t&#257dvaitav&#257da), a position which the Brahmo Sam&#257j can be said to have retained till now. Under his inspiring leadership, the Sam&#257j played a distinguished role on sponsoring social reforms such as widow marriage, spread of education, development of Bengali literature through its organ the <i>Tattvabodhin&#299 Patrik&#257</i> and opposition to the efforts of Christian missionaries to villify Hinduism and to gain converts from the ranks of the Hindus. The Brahmo movement thus grew in extent and influence throughout Bengal and upper India and the Sam&#257j became a great moral and spiritual force in the country. To the end of his long life, Debendran&#257th, called <i>maha&#7771&#7779i</i> (great sage) for the deep spirituality of his nature by his admiring fellow believers, continued to enjoy the respect of all sections of his countrymen. In course of his spiritual quest, he found in the teachings of Gur&#363 N&#257nak one abiding source of inspiration. He visited the Golden Temple of Amritsar more than once, joined the temple singers in the choric singing of hymns there, learnt the language of the Sikh Scripture and openly expressed his admiration of the democratic organization of Sikh places of worship and the Sikh mode of initiation. His autobiography, which is a charming account of the gradual unfolding of his spiritual life, is strewn with quotations from the Sikh Scripture, along with those from the Upani&#7779ads and H&#257fiz.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The next phase of the Brahmo movement is dominated by the dynamic personality of Keshav Chandra Sen (1838-1884) who had joined the Sam&#257j in 1857 and had become the right-hand man of Debendran&#257th Tagore. Differences arising from a conflict of two radically different temperaments, soon led to a parting of ways. Debendran&#257th was intensely national in his religious ideal drawing his inspiration mainly from the sublime doctrines of the Upani&#7779ads and he was always in favour of emphasizing the special relation that Brahmoism had with Hinduism of the Ved&#257ntic form. In social questions too he was for a slow and cautious move forward always seeking, like R&#257mmohun Roy before him, a harmony between an intended reform and the collective will of the people for whom it was meant. The character and personality of Keshav were however entirely moulded by Western culture and Christian influence and he was the advocate of a much more aggressive reform policy not hesitating to employ legislation as a weapon. In 1865, the progressives led by Keshav withdrew from the parent Church and, in the following year (11 November 1866), they established the Brahmo Sam&#257j of India. The parent body came henceforth to be known as the &#256di Brahmo Sam&#257j. The new wing proceeded to carry out its programme of spiritual and social reform with great sincerity and enthusiasm and achieved striking success within a short period. The whole of India now in a real sense became the field of activity of the Brahmo Sam&#257j. The two Indian tours of Keshav in 1864 and 1867 had done much to foster the sense of spiritual and national unity among the Indians and his visit to England in 1870 carried the message of the Brahmo Sam&#257j to Europe. The Sam&#257j now adopted a much more radical and comprehensive scheme of social reform, including the programme of a complete abolition of caste distinctions, promotion of female education and female emancipation, cheap newspaper, labour welfare, etc. These activities found expression in the formation of the Indian Reform Association in 1870 and the enactment of the Civil Marriage Act of 1872. Doctrinally, a much greater emphasis now began to be laid, presumably due to Christian influence, on the sense of sin, the spirit of repentecnce and the efficacy of prayer. The universality of the theism of Keshav and his followers was much more pronounced than that of Debendran&#257th Tagore and the latter's compatriots. This found expression in the compilation of the <i>&#346loka-Sa&#7749graha</i> (1866) which was a carefully compiled collection of extracts from the religious scriptures of various sects and in its revised editions covered Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina, Sikh, Jewish, Christian, Muhammadan, Parsi and Chinese sacred texts. Great religious systems of the world like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Sikhims, were studied with reverence. The infusion of <i>bhakti</i> of devotional fervour into Brahmoism for which Keshav was indebted in some measure to the Vai&#7779&#7751ava followers of Chaitanya made it &#8220a pratical religious culture sweet and soothing to the human herat. &#8221 Finally , Keshav's doctrine of God in Conscience &#8220developed the moral side of faith, by bringing human conduct within the domain of man's spirituality. &#8221 The sympathetic and respectful attitude which he had displayed towards all faiths early in his career led to a rich synthesis of religions, which he proclaimed under the title of &#8220New Dispensaion&#8221 (Nava Vidh&#257n) on 25 January 1880. The systematic study of the different religions of the world initiated since 1869 through Keshav's inspiration and direction and led saintly scholars of the Sam&#257j like Gour Govinda Roy, Prat&#257p Chandra Mazoomd&#257r, Aghor N&#257th Gupta, Gir&#299sh Chandra Sen and Mahendra N&#257th, B&#257su to enrich the store of human knowledge by their learned publications on Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and Sikhism. The last-named scholar is well known in Bengali literature for his <i>N&#257nak-Prak&#257sa</i>, part I (1885) and part II (1893), based on a comprehensive study of the Sikh Scripture in the original. It was Keshav who gave first public recognition to the spiritual genious of the contemporary saint, R&#257makrishna Paramaha&#7749sa; great spiritual fellowship had grwon up between the tow.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Second schim in Brahmo Sam&#257j occurred when a band of Keshav's sincere and talented followers, including Pa&#7751&#7693it Sivan&#257th S&#257str&#299, &#256nanda Mohan Bose, Vijay Krishna Gosw&#257m&#299, Durg&#257mohan D&#257s, Sivchandra Deb Dv&#257rk&#257n&#257th G&#257&#7749g&#363l&#299, Umesh Chandra Datta and others, left him to found the S&#257dh&#257ra&#7751 Brahmo Sam&#257j (15 May 1878) mainly on the following grounds: (i) their demand for the introduction of a democratic constitution in the Church was not conceded; (ii) thay could not see eye to eye with Keshav on the question of <i>&#257de&#347a</i> or Divine command ; (iii) marriage of Keshav's daughter with the prince of the Cooch Beh&#257r state allegedly in violation of the provisions of the Marriage Act of 1872 which had himself done so much to get passed. Leaders of this new body made it their first objective to draw up a Trust deed for their chruch and give the organization a democratic constitutional based on universal adult franchise. They laid great emphasis on the ideas of freedom and democracy. In conformity with the democratic and constitutional ideals it was also affirmed that &#8220nothing should pass as an act or deed or opinion of the <i>sam&#257j</i> unitl a majority of the members sanctioned it. &#8221 There is really no important doctrinal difference between the second and third bodies of the Brahmo Sam&#257j, apart from the fact that the S&#257dh&#257ra&#7751 Brahmo Sam&#257j does not lay the same emphasis on the theory of <i>&#257de&#347a</i> or Divine command when understood in a collective sense and on Keshav's ideal of the New Dispensation as is done by the Brahmo Sam&#257j of India. The new Body, however, laid renewed stress on the ideals of service and philanthropy that had been the characteristics of the movement since the days of R&#257mmohun Roy and plunged whole-heartedly into a programme of social, educational and political reform. The concept of constitutional democracy is a distinct contribution of S&#257dh&#257ra&#7751 Brahmo Sam&#257j to modern Indian social polity. The anti-caste movement now took concrete shape all over India with the emergence of organizations like the Native Philanthropic Association for the regeneration of Pariahs in Southern India (1883) at Bangalore, the Depressed Classes Mission Society of India (1906) at Bombay, the All India Anti-Untouchability League (1907) at Pune and the Society for the Improvement of the Backward Classes (1913) at Calcutta.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From the ranks of men associated with the S&#257dh&#257ra&#7751 Brahmo Sam&#257j emerged nationalist leaders such as &#256nanda Mohan Bose, Bipin Chandra P&#257l, Chitta Rañjan D&#257s and J. M. Sengupta; revolutionaries such as Satyaendra N&#257th Bose and Ullaskar Datta; and sponsors of labour welfare such as Dv&#257rk&#257n&#257th Ga&#7749g&#363l&#299, R&#257mkumar Vidy&#257ratna and Sas&#299pada Banerj&#299. In the field of literature, philosophy and comparative religion too. the members of the Sam&#257j have left a permanent stamp. Special mention may be made in this context of the authoritative study of Gur&#363 N&#257nak and the Sikh religion by Krishna Kum&#257r Mitra, one of the leaders of the Sam&#257j and of the Svadesh&#299 movement, who studied the Sikh Scripture in the original in order to equip himself for the task. In fact, the second schism in the history of the Brahmo Sam&#257j "certainly indicated a forward look and an onward march which showed the life that was in the movement. " The S&#257dh&#257ra&#7751 Brahmo Sam&#257j has proved to be the most powerful and active branch of the Brahmo Sam&#257j in the country.</p> <p class="C1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Numerically probably the smallest religious community in the world, the Brahmo Sam&#257j has played a role of far-reaching importance in the history of modern India. It has not only sought to harmonize the conflicting religious trends of our day, but has also proceeded to meet the challenge thrown by a scientific and industrial age to the world of traditional spiritual values. The result has been a new spiritual philosophy which by its sheer dynamism has helped to transform the face of India.</p> </font> <p class="BIB"> BIBLIOGRAPHY<p class="C1"><ol class="C1"><li class="C1"> Sastri, Sivanath, <i>History of the Brahmo Samaj</i>. Calcutta, 1974<BR> <li class="C1"> Farquhar, J. N. , <i>Modern Religious Movements in India</i>. Delhi, 1977<BR> <li class="C1"> Ganda Singh, ed. , <i>The Singh Sabha and other Socio-Religious Movements in the Punjab</i>. Patiala, 1984<BR> </ol><p class="CONT">Dilip K. Biswas<br></p><BR> </font> <img src="counter.aspx" width="1px" height="1px" alt=""> </HTML></BODY>